Electrical transport measurements are a fundamental materials characterization technique that can provide insight into the scattering mechanisms and band structure of solid-state materials. As described in quantum mechanics, macroscopic carrier transport is one of the most fundamental concepts of electronic material properties, with significant gate-tunable effects in low-dimensional systems and at low temperatures.

The corrected DC current of the lock-in amplifier is equal to the DC current flowing through it. The current can be measured by measuring the output of the lock-in amplifier.

Methods for measuring electrons emitted from the surface of a sample include Vacuum Ultraviolet Photoelectron Spectroscopy (UPS), X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and so on.